The US geological storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere legal and regulatory framework is based on the Safe Drinking Water Act from 1974, in which the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is given the jurisdiction to regulate underground injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells of any substances and thus protecting underground sources of drinking water from contamination.
In 1980, EPA issued the Underground InjectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells Control (UIC) programme. This distinguishes several classes of injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wells, e.g. Class II being relevant for EOREnhanced Oil Recovery: the recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means operations and Class V for experimental injections. It is worth mentioning here that the existing federal and state legal regimes developed for the EOREnhanced Oil Recovery: the recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means operations address many aspects of the requirements of geological storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere, especially if the early phase of CCSCarbon dioxide Capture and Storage implementation is performed within EOREnhanced Oil Recovery: the recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means operations. In December 2010, EPA adopted the rules for regulations of CO2Carbon dioxide injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wells for permanent underground storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere of CO2Carbon dioxide within the UIC programme (USEPA, 2010a) by introducing a new Class VI.
In the USA, clarification of property rights which includes access to pore spaceSpace between rock or sediment grains that can contain fluids was also a prerequisite legal issue in the implementation of commercial underground storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere projects. The EPA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) (USEPA, 2011) exempts CO2Carbon dioxide stored underground as part of CCSCarbon dioxide Capture and Storage operations from hazardous waste regulations (Pollak, 2012).
EPA UIC rules cover all phases from pre-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells to post injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells site care. In order to support owners and operators of Class VI injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wells and the UIC Program permitting authorities, EPA issued a Guidance manual (EPA, 2013) which is just one of the series of technical Guidance Documents that EPA has developed. The requirements for Class VI refer to site characterization, modelling of the injected area, wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids construction and operations, monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of the CO2 streamA flow of substances resulting from CO2 capture processes, or which consists of a sufficient fraction of CO2 and sufficiently low concentrations of other substances to meet specifications of streams permitted for long term geological storage, financial responsibility, and periodic re-evaluation of the area and the updates of the project plan. Owners or operators are required to test and monitor the elements according to a Testing and MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions Plan submitted with a Class VI permit application and implemented throughout the storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere operation and beyond. The Testing and MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions Plan must describe planned injectate monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, corrosion monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, pressure fall-off testing, ground water quality monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, CO2 plumeDispersing volume of CO2-rich phase contained in target formation and pressure front tracking, and (if required) surface air and/or soil gas monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions. The monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of mechanical integrity of injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wells is required. A set of available methods for internal and external mechanical integrity testing exist. In the operational phase, analysis of CO2 streamA flow of substances resulting from CO2 capture processes, or which consists of a sufficient fraction of CO2 and sufficiently low concentrations of other substances to meet specifications of streams permitted for long term geological storage and continuous monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells rate, pressure and volume, corrosion monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions and pressure fall-off testing are required. Geochemical monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of ground water quality above the confining zone is required by using appropriate sampling techniques and sampling frequencies. Available methods for plume and pressure-front tracking include in-situ fluid pressure monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, indirect geophysical monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, ground water geochemical monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions combined with computational modelling. The suite of testing and monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions methodologies used shall be site specific, complementary; the monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions frequency shall differ according to specific site conditions. If applicable, and if required by the UIC Program Director, the surface should be monitored as wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids.
MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions is required to be extended in the post-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells phase. The monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions actions should define the area of review and should form an integer part of corrective action plans, testing and monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions plans, injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids abandonment(wells) Actions taken to ensure permanent isolation of the fluids and pressures of exposed permeable zones within a well from the surface and from lower pressured zones plans, post-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells site closure plans, emergency and remedial response plans. (USEPA, 2010a; Baker and McKenzie, 2011). The application document shall enclose all basic information of the site (maps, models, plans, designs, injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids construction etc.). Guidance to the EPA rules (USEPA, 2013) recommends a format and required reporting frequency of collected data and interpretation and the type of information and data that should be included. EPA serves as a permitting agency, but States may administer the UIC programme themselves, subject to the EPA approval.
Apart from the federal regulation framework, the States (about a dozen at a time) are developing their own frameworks to address geological storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere. Dedicated legislation at the state level treats CO2Carbon dioxide as a valuable commodity rather than waste (as is the case for the EUEuropean Union). Some States provide for site review and permitting rules, monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions and testing, site closure and post-closurePeriod after transfer of responsibility to the competent authority rules. Transfer of liability and stewardship to government is foreseen.
Several sources notify there are still remaining uncertainties in the regulatory and legal frameworks for CO2Carbon dioxide storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere. Consistent requirements will therefore be needed for monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, verifying, and reporting injected CO2Carbon dioxide, and releases, if any. Liability issues will need to be clarified. In 2010, the EPA finalized its Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases from Carbon Dioxide InjectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells and Geologic Sequestration (Reporting Rule - Subparts RR for CO2Carbon dioxide geological storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere facilities and Subpart UU that conduct all other CO2Carbon dioxide injections) (Baker and McKenzie, 2011). Facilities covered by Subpart RR must monitor and report CO2Carbon dioxide received, injected, produced, emitted from surface leakage(in CO2 storage) The escape of injected fluid from the storage formation to the atmosphere or water column and equipment leaks and CO2Carbon dioxide sequestered in subsurface geologic formations. They must also submit a MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, Reporting and Verification(CO2 storage) The proof, to a standard still to be decided, of the CO2 storage using monitoring results; (in the context of CDM) The independent review by a designated operational entity of monitored reductions in anthropogenic emissions plan (which is to include leakage(in CO2 storage) The escape of injected fluid from the storage formation to the atmosphere or water column risk assessmentA process intended to calculate or estimate the risk to a given target, part of a risk management system, monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions strategy and pre-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells baselines) for EPA approval. Facilities covered by Subpart UU have a lesser reporting requirements. These facilities must report the sourceAny process, activity or mechanism that releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol, or a precursor thereof into the atmosphere of the CO2Carbon dioxide and mass of CO2Carbon dioxide received.
Greenhouse gasGas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds; thus, trapping heat within the surface-troposphere system. e.g. water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) reductionThe gain of one or more electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion targets have still not been adopted at the federal level. However, numerous States have accepted greenhouse gasGas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds; thus, trapping heat within the surface-troposphere system. e.g. water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) limitations and adopted binding documents. Because of these facts, in the USA the driver for CCSCarbon dioxide Capture and Storage deployment is EOREnhanced Oil Recovery: the recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means, not policy or emission reductionThe gain of one or more electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion. According to some sources (Hunton and Williams, 2012), industry has expressed concerns the Class VI requirements are too stringent and may impede geologic sequestration. It is noted that CO2Carbon dioxide used for enhanced oil recoveryThe recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means is a subject to less restrictive standards (Class II).
Act (RCRA) (USEPA, 2011) exempts CO2Carbon dioxide stored underground as part of CCSCarbon dioxide Capture and Storage operations from hazardous waste regulations (Pollak, 2012).
EPA UIC rules cover all phases from pre-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells to post injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells site care. In order to support owners and operators of Class VI injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wells and the UIC Program permitting authorities, EPA issued a Guidance manual (EPA, 2013) which is just one of the series of technical Guidance Documents that EPA has developed. The requirements for Class VI refer to site characterization, modelling of the injected area, wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids construction and operations, monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of the CO2 streamA flow of substances resulting from CO2 capture processes, or which consists of a sufficient fraction of CO2 and sufficiently low concentrations of other substances to meet specifications of streams permitted for long term geological storage, financial responsibility, and periodic re-evaluation of the area and the updates of the project plan. Owners or operators are required to test and monitor the elements according to a Testing and MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions Plan submitted with a Class VI permit application and implemented throughout the storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere operation and beyond. The Testing and MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions Plan must describe planned injectate monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, corrosion monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, pressure fall-off testing, ground water quality monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, CO2 plumeDispersing volume of CO2-rich phase contained in target formation and pressure front tracking, and (if required) surface air and/or soil gas monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions. The monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of mechanical integrity of injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wells is required. A set of available methods for internal and external mechanical integrity testing exist. In the operational phase, analysis of CO2 streamA flow of substances resulting from CO2 capture processes, or which consists of a sufficient fraction of CO2 and sufficiently low concentrations of other substances to meet specifications of streams permitted for long term geological storage and continuous monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells rate, pressure and volume, corrosion monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions and pressure fall-off testing are required. Geochemical monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions of ground water quality above the confining zone is required by using appropriate sampling techniques and sampling frequencies. Available methods for plume and pressure-front tracking include in-situ fluid pressure monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, indirect geophysical monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, ground water geochemical monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions combined with computational modelling. The suite of testing and monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions methodologies used shall be site specific, complementary; the monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions frequency shall differ according to specific site conditions. If applicable, and if required by the UIC Program Director, the surface should be monitored as wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids.
MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions is required to be extended in the post-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells phase. The monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions actions should define the area of review and should form an integer part of corrective action plans, testing and monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions plans, injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids abandonment(wells) Actions taken to ensure permanent isolation of the fluids and pressures of exposed permeable zones within a well from the surface and from lower pressured zones plans, post-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells site closure plans, emergency and remedial response plans. (USEPA, 2010a; Baker and McKenzie, 2011). The application document shall enclose all basic information of the site (maps, models, plans, designs, injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells wellManmade hole drilled into the earth to produce liquids or gases, or to allow the injection of fluids construction etc.). Guidance to the EPA rules (USEPA, 2013) recommends a format and required reporting frequency of collected data and interpretation and the type of information and data that should be included. EPA serves as a permitting agency, but States may administer the UIC programme themselves, subject to the EPA approval.
Apart from the federal regulation framework, the States (about a dozen at a time) are developing their own frameworks to address geological storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere. Dedicated legislation at the state level treats CO2Carbon dioxide as a valuable commodity rather than waste (as is the case for the EUEuropean Union). Some States provide for site review and permitting rules, monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions and testing, site closure and post-closurePeriod after transfer of responsibility to the competent authority rules. Transfer of liability and stewardship to government is foreseen.
Several sources notify there are still remaining uncertainties in the regulatory and legal frameworks for CO2Carbon dioxide storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere. Consistent requirements will therefore be needed for monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, verifying, and reporting injected CO2Carbon dioxide, and releases, if any. Liability issues will need to be clarified. In 2010, the EPA finalized its Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases from Carbon Dioxide InjectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells and Geologic Sequestration (Reporting Rule - Subparts RR for CO2Carbon dioxide geological storage(CO2) A process for retaining captured CO2, so that it does not reach the atmosphere facilities and Subpart UU that conduct all other CO2Carbon dioxide injections) (Baker and McKenzie, 2011). Facilities covered by Subpart RR must monitor and report CO2Carbon dioxide received, injected, produced, emitted from surface leakage(in CO2 storage) The escape of injected fluid from the storage formation to the atmosphere or water column and equipment leaks and CO2Carbon dioxide sequestered in subsurface geologic formations. They must also submit a MonitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions, Reporting and Verification(CO2 storage) The proof, to a standard still to be decided, of the CO2 storage using monitoring results; (in the context of CDM) The independent review by a designated operational entity of monitored reductions in anthropogenic emissions plan (which is to include leakage(in CO2 storage) The escape of injected fluid from the storage formation to the atmosphere or water column risk assessmentA process intended to calculate or estimate the risk to a given target, part of a risk management system, monitoringMeasurement and surveillance activities necessary for ensuring safe and reliable operation of a CGS project (storage integrity), and for estimating emission reductions strategy and pre-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells baselines) for EPA approval. Facilities covered by Subpart UU have a lesser reporting requirements. These facilities must report the sourceAny process, activity or mechanism that releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol, or a precursor thereof into the atmosphere of the CO2Carbon dioxide and mass of CO2Carbon dioxide received.
Greenhouse gasGas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds; thus, trapping heat within the surface-troposphere system. e.g. water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) reductionThe gain of one or more electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion targets have still not been adopted at the federal level. However, numerous States have accepted greenhouse gasGas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds; thus, trapping heat within the surface-troposphere system. e.g. water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) limitations and adopted binding documents. Because of these facts, in the USA the driver for CCSCarbon dioxide Capture and Storage deployment is EOREnhanced Oil Recovery: the recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means, not policy or emission reductionThe gain of one or more electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion. According to some sources (Hunton and Williams, 2012), industry has expressed concerns the Class VI requirements are too stringent and may impede geologic sequestration. It is noted that CO2Carbon dioxide used for enhanced oil recoveryThe recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means is a subject to less restrictive standards (Class II). It may appear necessary to develop a transitional regulatory framework for shifting from EOREnhanced Oil Recovery: the recovery of oil additional to that produced naturally, achieved by fluid injection or other means operations (incidental injections) to CCSCarbon dioxide Capture and Storage operations (incremental injections). Financial security aspects for a post-injectionThe process of using pressure to force fluids down wells period would also need to be assured and regulated.